My
FREE SA
My Front for Radical Educational Empowerment of South Africans
South Africa carries the same educational baggage as all colonial infested countries. The colonial rule was only interested to loot the wealth of the colonies and cleverly created an educational system that created bureaucrats and slave labor for their own benefit.
India had the best educational system for thousands of years but was
destroyed with brutal violence which brought about death and destruction of the
teachers and institutions. The Mogul invaders started it and the British
benefited by adding more destruction to the system of education. They had
realized that education made a patriotic nation and to kill its roots the rule
of the outsider, having brainwashed the nation would have made it easier to
rule and loot.
South Africa has a similar reality and invaders had succeeded in
destroying the African culture. India had a practical system of education, and
the world copied it with their names attached as the best in the world.
Highlighting some of the most important aspects of education is one of
the theses are written by D. Banerjee on “National Education Theory of Sri
Aurobindo” has many connotations with South Africa.
Read the following highlights that I feel are of importance without a
prejudice to religious associations.
1.
Note
1; it’s important to
understand what educational system should be designed, taking care of mental and
physical aspects of the children.
2.
Note 2;
Western educator’s theory and practice differ in its fundamental
system as it has not evolved on its own with time.
3.
Note 3; The Indian
free thinkers isolated the problem areas and started a movement to reinstate the
Hindu way of life. Why can’t we do this in Africa?
4.
Note 4; Political
freedom can only be valued with an education system which will inspire the
people of the country with patriotic values, wealth creators and thinkers
focused on the aim of contributing to the freedom they share with all other
citizens.
5.
Note 5; I am
in agreement with the thought that the education system should be such that it makes the youths conscious of
their own cultural heritage with the
true attachments with the national spirit as well as international brotherhood.
6.
Note 6; To
achieve the objective of a practical educational system few criteria from the
theses of Sri Aurobindo
Physical training/education
Vital training/education - the training of the vital organs i.e. the
sense-organs
Mental training/education
Psychic training/education
Supramental training/education (Supramental; beyond or somehow above
normal thought)
7.
Note 7; In this context, we have to go through his three principles of integral education.
The first principle of true teaching is that “nothing can be taught.‟
The second principle is that the child has to grow in his natural growth process
The third principle is that to work from near to the far, from that which is to
that which shall be according to him; man’s nature is totally dependent upon
his heredity.
8.
Note 8; But
again to tell that the road is not so smooth to reach there. In my view, men
can easily serve the goals of physical education, vital
education and even mental education.
Western education system only concentrates
on physical education and vital education but it’s getting important with the
tools of multimedia to include mental education. If Psychic training and Supramental training is not conducive to your
cultures then one must opt to train them with their own religions to optimize
the education of an individual.
Please read the thesis with the notes in
mind.
National Education Theory of Sri Aurobindo
2016
The concept of education in national field has a very important role to
play in even twentieth-century India. However here I want to focus on the
national theory of education as envisioned by Sri Aurobindo and to reveal the
contribution of his integral education theory on modern India while comparing
with Gandhi.
International
Journal of Research in Humanities and Social StudiesVolume 2, Issue 12,
December 2015, PP 1-7ISSN 2349-4395 (Print) & ISSN 2349-4409 (Online)
International
Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies
National Education Theory of Sri Aurobindo
Prof. Debashri Banerjee
Assistant
Prof. & Head of the Department, Department of Philosophy, C.R.P. College,
West Bengal
ABSTRACT
The concept of education in national field has
very important role to play in even twentieth century India.However here I want
to focus on the national theory of education as envisioned by Sri Aurobindo and
to revealthe contribution of his integral education theory on modern India
while comparing with Gandhi.
Keywords:
Sri Aurobindo, National education, Gandhi,
integral education.
INTRODUCTION
The
definition of true education is a very debatable concept about which the
agreement has to be yet established. Generally we denote by the word
„education‟ the system of education received by us during our school and
college days. But is this denotation is appropriate? If yes, then education will
stand just for bookish knowledge’s encouraged by our traditional educational
institutes. Education certainly not means that. - Note
1. - In its true sense, education should be
that training, both mental and physical, of the children, which will enable
them to reveal their internal capabilities as well as introduce them with the
knowledge of all things belonging in this vast world. According to swami
Vivekananda, by which education we learn to control and dominate our moral
wills and to limit their speed completely that education should be considered as
the proper kind of education. It will encourage the pupils not only to learn
from books, but also from nature. Because a person, who does not believe that nature,
is the best teacher of a child, is actually rejecting one of the most
significant principles of education. A child,
deprived from the nature, is unable to utilize his bookish information’s due to
lack of appropriate training. In books, he will learn the process how to
acquire and memorize some information’s, but unable to know about their
utility; however in nature he will both learn the fact as well as its usage. Thus,
the prospective of education over our whole life seems quiet vast; as it does
not remain limit only within the small boundary of books, but expanded
throughout our whole life-experiences. In this present paper, I will try to
compare between the educational theories of Sri Aurobindo and Tagore, whose
writings will help us to understand properly the true picture of our present educational
conditions and also to reform it whenever found necessary. It has been a great
concern for educators nowadays to evaluate the theory of education. - Note 2. - Many Western
educators and philosophers of education have tried to understand educational
theories not just as mere theories less concern with actual practice, but as a
real structure and framework which provide practical guidelines for educational
practice.
POLITICAL
BACKGROUND OF INDIAN NATIONAL EDUCATION AGITATION
However, for
doing so, let us at first try to understand the background of that time which
led them to think so seriously about formulating their theories of education.
In 1905, the most debatable issue of Indian politics took place i.e. the
notorious Bengal Partition held in the order of Lord Curzon. The partition of
Bengal took the immediate form of a movement during 1905 and became the
essential part of the swadeshi or Indian political movement. Then a very highly
spirited Anti-Partition Movement begun in which both Sri Aurobindo and Tagore
took active part. - Note 3. - People of Bengal
also protested against this nasty conspiracy of the British government to divide
the cultural and intellectual capital of India.
Prof. Debashri Banerjee National Education
Theory of Sri Aurobindo Page 1 International
Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V2 ● I12 ● December 2015
In the
national educational movement at that time, nationalist leaders tried to focus on
several essential facts. The first one was, to revive the past glory of India.
Another result was to recreate a sense of pride among Indians by learning the
traditions, culture and religion of India. The third one was to rediscover the
value of using Indian languages as the medium of education. In the ready-fields
of national educational movement, Tagore along with Satish Chandra Mukherjee
played the major roles [Sri Aurobindo was also another important one]. For
propagating the learning procedure of Indian traditions along with modern
Western values, Tagore formed the Visva-Bharati University, Satish Chandra
formed Dawn Society and Sri Aurobindo established an ashram in Pondicherry. In
order to organize a national education system, the necessity of constituting a National
Council of Education was felt heavily. This conception of creating the Council
was taken during a meeting held in Calcutta on November, 1905. On 14 August,
1906, the National College was originally founded and Sri Aurobindo [formerly
well-known as Aurobindo Ghose] was appointed as its first principal. For
spreading the technical and engineering studies in Bengal, an engineering
College was founded by the National Council of Education, which, later after
being reconciled with the national college, took the form of Jadavpur
University after 1947. During this national education agitation period, large
number of schools was opened in different parts of Bengal. Among them, the
schools established at Faridpur and Bakargunj of East Bengal [now in Bangladesh]
were much popular of large numbers of Muslims and women were enrolled here. However
for stopping the spreading of national educational movement, the British
government madea very clever trick by imposing the Carlyle Circular over Indian
pupils. In this notorious circular, they banned the students to take part of
any political movement, to attend any political meeting or talking in the favor
of Indian politicians. If they made any attempt to overhear this ultimatum,
then by the help of this circular they could even be imprisoned and expelled
from the British educational institutes. But its effect was truly devastating
in students all over Bengal. Many students participated in showing
demonstration against this British circular. As a result, they were expelled
from the educational institutions run by the government. Then the requirement
of a supplementary educational system was greatly realized. Therefore on 11th
March, 1906 the National Council of Education was founded for the establishment
of national schools and colleges for meeting with the demands of Indian
students. On august, 1906 the Bengal National College was founded in which Sri
Aurobindo was appointed as the first Principal. And later Sri Aurobindo Ashram
was established in Pondicherry by The Mother in the light of his educational
views. And in 1901, Tagore set up Bramhachary ashramin Shantiniketan where the
pupils would be introduced with the ideal of the Tapobans of ancient India.
This ashram took the form of Visva-Bharati in 1918. As the active members of
National Council of Education, both of them developed certain ideals regarding
the teaching procedure, which helped them a lot in their discussion about the
reformation of the traditional system of education. However none of them were
interested in gaining reputations for themselves as the educationalists, even though
their educational concepts have been able to achieve contemporary relevance
even today. Let us have a brief look upon these.
SRI AUROBINDO’S
THESIS ON NATIONAL EDUCATION
As a mystic and yogi in nature, Sri
Aurobindo‟s main aim regarding the establishment of national education policy
is to concentrate towards the spiritual upliftment of his motherland. He always
wanted to advance India and its countrymen in the spiritual path. His
so-desired Divine Life will be impossible unless the communal upliftment of all
human beings, whether Indians or not. Every
individual has spiritual purpose to be fulfilled in his own life, so by the
advancement of Spirituality he can reach to internalism from the national arena.
India has spiritual mastery over all other nations from birth; it has to teach
the materialist world how to live spiritually. Thus, according to SriAurobindo,
India has to gain the spiritual mastery over the entire materialistic world.
And for gaining this spiritual mastery, India has to be advanced from heart and
for this above reason, it has to educate its all children irrespective of
class-structure or wealth-pattern. Every child of
India has the primitive right of education and we should not deprive him/her
from this basic right. Let us, in this context, try to understand the
true meaning of national education. Mr. Gopalkrishna Gokhale described
„national education‟ as „the independent system of education‟. However national
education certainly does not mean that, the term has different connotation. The
Subjects Committee of Indian National Congress at Calcutta session introduced
the word „national‟ three times. But Nationalist leaders did not accept any
suggestion to drop the word „national‟ from the national educational system.
Prof. Debashri Banerjee National Education
Theory of Sri Aurobindo Page 1 International Journal of
Research in Humanities and Social Studies V2 ● I12 ● December 2015
Note
4; Sri
Aurobindo was in the favour of spreading the national education theory as an
essential means of a attaining the political freedom. Political liberty can be
gained even if the countrymen were illiterate, but the sustenance of it could
not be possible without the freedom of gaining education by the young
generation of any country. If the children of any nation are deprived of education, then the
proper improvement of that country will not happen. We, thus, have to
understand the necessity of educational system as a backbone of any
highly-developed nation. India is not an exception to this. Hence in his
political thesis the educational theory has attained a high place.
Sri
Aurobindo‟s educational thesis has the goal of attainting the universal harmony
of mankind, where no bar of nations should be entertained at all. The aim of
true education is to make human life to be superior divine life. Three aspects of education are – the
man, the nation with all its limitations, and most of all internationalism. The
man when become free from all boundary created by the family, clan and nation
surrounding him, then he can truly realize the inner spirit of Man. This
arousal of inner spirit is termed as „Divine Life‟ by Sri Aurobindo. While
determining the principles of education, the first and foremost concern of this
great visionary is to build up India as a great nation. Sri Aurobindo truly
explained – „national education cannot be defined in one or two sentences, but
we may describe it tentatively as the education which, starting with the past
and making full use of the present builds up a great nation. Note 5;- The primary aim
of Sri Aurobindo‟s thesis of education is to make the youths conscious of their
own cultural heritage. According to Sri
Aurobindo, there are three different essential parts taken to be in
consideration in a true and living education – the common and unique
individual; the nation along with the national spirit; and the inner feeling of
universal humanity. The growth and development required of an individual should
be the primary objective of that true and ideal education. The aim of education
should be to help the individual mind for the complete development of his inner
qualities and, in this above way, he may realize the full purpose of his whole
life. Through the proper kind of education system, an individual has gained the
true attachments with the national spirit as well as international brotherhood.
However his educational
doctrine has something spiritual in nature. In Sri Aurobindo‟s doctrine,
man is not merely a living body; rather consist of several vital energies, an
ego and a mind with the qualities of reasoning and imagination. The social,
political, economic aspects of a human being are truly constitute his external
or outer side, but the real nature of a man is the Supreme Spirit or the Self
as it is the manifestation of the Sachhidananda. Every human life has divine
aspect inherent within his nature. The main aim of a human life is to identify
his preferable unity with the Almighty. And by
realizing this divine truth he can understand the reason behind his own
existence. By realizing the existence of Divine
in his life, he can understand also the radical transformation procedure of the
entire world. Then the Divine satisfied by the prayer of the individual
will be bound to emerge upon earth. The so-desired evolution of the matter,
life and mind through several layers can go to the supermind level of
existence. Thus the Divine will come down upon the earthern plane to fulfil Sri
Aurobindo‟s desire of divine life.
In his
theory of education Sri Aurobindo concentrated wholly upon the development of
life, mind and soul of the students. Thus his educational doctrine is known to
be the integral education as it aims at the purification of the life, mind and
soul-factor of a pupil unlike others. Note 6;There are several criterias of training of students in
Sri Aurobindo‟s thesis of education –
·
Physical training/education: In this
training programme of the physical part of the student, the bodily growth and
development procedure is truly desirable. In
Sri Aurobindo‟s own words „If our seeking is for the total
perfection of the being, the physical part of it cannot be left aside; for the
body is the material basis, the body is the instrument which we have to use. Body
is made of material base and for the upliftment of whole student life; the
advancement of body should not be ignored. And for this so-desired bodily
development, the necessity of games and sports are highly appreciable. Sports and physical training
programme given in the childhood and early youth would be tremendously helpful
in bringing out the fullest potentailies of a student life.
Prof. Debashri Banerjee National Education
Theory of Sri Aurobindo Page
3 International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V2 ● I12 ●
December 2015
·
Vital training/education: Sri Aurobindo
gave extreme importance on the training of the vital organs i.e. the
sense-organs. The
training of the sense-organs constitute the vital aspects of education. These
senses constitute of eyes, ears, nose, skin and palate etc. external sense
organs and also the internal sense organ namedcitta/manas. In this part of his
life, there exists the roots of different feelings, desires, sentiments,
impulses, emotions– the determining
factors of his own character.
The importance of vital education of the students are two-folds – (1) it helps to develop, as the Mother said,
the sense-organs; (2) through it, one can gradually gain mastery over his character
which will lead towards his transformation. According to the Mother, the proper
nourishment of the senses will help to generate generosity and nobility factors
within children.
·
Mental training/education: One of the
important parts of human development procedure is to develop the mind, because, in Sri Aurobindo‟s view, the
Mind or Antahkarana is known to be one of the instruments in the hands of the
educationists. Regarding the mental training procedure Sri Auronido gave
importance on the role played by the tutor as he is the main person who can nurture
the mental faculties of his students. In this training of mental faculty, a student’s memory power, powers
of judgments and imagination has to be boosted. However the logical faculty has
also to be sharpened by training in logic and else. The student has to
grow in his own way. His mind cannot be moulded or trained in this way so that
he should grow under any external pressure.
·
Psychic training/education: Sri Aurobindo‟s uniqueness is that
his educational thesis does
not end with the training of the intellect, but also it aims to comprehend the
true motive of human life and the reason of ones existence upon this earth.
And for this unique realization we have to go through the psychic training
programme. The eternal principle, upon which the basis of his own existence
depends, is the Psychic being or commonly known to be the Soul. The soul is the inherent factor of
human being. And so in the educational training procedure the training of the
soul or psychic being seems extremely necessary for Sri Aurobindo
·
Supramental training/education: The unique highest limit of such
educational training procedure, according to Sri Aurobindo, is the supramental
training. None other Sri Aurobindo ever thought that possibility of educational
training through the supramental side of it. Actually his main aim is to show
the extremely difficult path of the ascent of the human race towards the
Sachhidanandaand to call him down upon the earth, just like Bhagirath called
upon River Ganga down in earth. For the fulfilment of his spiritual aim the
training of the spirituality i.e. the Supramental education programme is
ultimately necessary. (Supramental ;adjective
beyond or somehow above normal thought)
Thus it could
be seen that Sri Aurobindo aimed at the wholesome transformation of a student
life through his Integral education theory. But indeed a truly integral
education has three central aims to be fulfilled – (1)
for an individual, to outgrow the fullest possibilities of his soul; (2) for
the nation, to strengthen and enrich its nationa-soul, to focus on its dharma;
and last but not the least (3) for the advancement of both the individual and
the nation in such a way that it can grow into the ascending powers of mind and
soul of humanity. And all of them aims truly on the Sri Aurobindo‟s most
desired awakening of Spiritual Being.
Note
7; in this
context we have to go through his three principles of integral education.
The
first principle of true teaching is that “nothing can be taught‟ i.e. the
student has not been given any pressure upon him in the time of receiving
education. Every student
born with enormous potentialities and the master has to encourage him so that
his inner qualities can be gradually develop the task of the teacher is
certainly not to put lots of information to his student which unfortunately becomes
one of the most essential l part today’s educational system. The trainer has to show just the proper way of developing
the inner possibilities of every child and not more than that.
The
second principle is that the child has to grow in his natural growth process.
Nothing could be imposed upon him as an external factor. There can be no
greater error than for the parent to arrange beforehand that his son shall
develop particular qualities, capacities, ideas, virtues, or be prepared for a
pre-arranged career. The
student should get enough liberty so that he can be able to nourish his inner
potentialities and can make himself perfect.
Prof. Debashri Banerjee National Education
Theory of Sri Aurobindo Page
4 International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V2 ● I12 ●
December 2015
The
third principle is that to work from near to the far, from that which is to
that which shall be according to him; man’s nature is totally dependent upon
his heredity, atmospereic circumstances, nationality, love for his country
along with the soil, the air, the water etc. Pachabhuta tattva. As all these above qualities constitute
the natural environment of the child, the true education programme cannot
separate the natural environment from itself as a necessary organ. Thus the natural environmental side of true education helps
to nurture the inherent development procedure.
INTEGRAL
EDUCATION: ROAD TOWARDS LIFE DIVINE
Now we can ask an important question regarding
the relevance of Sri Aurobindo‟s integral education thesis from the social-political point of view. Education and social-political thought are two separate
fields. How could we correlate them with each other?
But if we
think from the point of view of Sri Aurobindo then these two are compatible
with each other. Education is the gateway, in his theory, by whose term we can
go towards the road of attaining the ultimate spiritual satisfaction. According
to critics the specialty of Sri Aurobindo‟s education thesis is that it
introduces the psychic and spiritual kind of education which is far beyond the
limit of understanding of common man. But from the perspective of his social
and political thought, these psychic and spiritual kinds of education make us
prepare to achieve the road of Life Divine. It is true that the goal set by Sri
Aurobindo is purely metaphysical in nature. And education works as mandatory
tools here.
Critics
thought that the existence of Psychic education and Spiritual education is the
specialty of Sri Aurobindo‟s theory regarding education. I am also accepting
this. They are indeed the gateways of Life Divine. It is thought that Life
Divine is actually a utopian state and there is no way to achieve it. But Life
Divine is not at all a utopia and the road towards its achievement is the way
of leading a man to achieve the psychic and spiritual senses of education.
If we go
through the integral education thesis of Sri Aurobindo, then the integral
education has to follow the path of
four-fold austerities and four-fold liberations to reach to the ultimate end of
Life Divine.
The four
austerities are as follows
Ø Tapasya
of Love
Ø
Tapasya
of Power
Ø
Tapasya
of Knowledge
Ø
Tapasya
of Beauty
The
four liberations are as follows –
Ø
Emotional Liberation
Ø
Mental Liberation
Ø
Vital Liberation
Ø
Physical Liberation
If we discuss
the road toward Life Divine with the help of Sri Aurobindo‟s doctrine of four
austerities then the tapasya of Love is considered as the gateway of it.
However the difficulty is that here the word “love‟ is not used in the sense of
any narrow egoistic human love, rather the divine love. This divine love has two
inner movements hidden within – supreme power of attraction and irrestible need
of complete self-surrender. Hence if we want to go through the path of Life
Divine then we have to follow the advice of The Mother –
“If therefore you want to be like the Divine,
love Him alone. One must be the ecstasy of the communion of love with the
Divine can alone know how insipid, dull and feeble all other love is, in comparison”.
Prof. Debashri Banerjee National Education
Theory of Sri Aurobindo Page
5 International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V2 ● I12 ●
December 2015
But very
astonishingly all the four liberations are the roads towards Life Divine.
Emotional liberation helps individuals to be free from emotional bondages and
sufferings in such a way that they can enjoy their integral union with the
Supreme. Men, being emotional in nature, always remain limited within the
boundary of suffering and bondage. If they can make themselves free from this
narrow limit of suffering then they can easily correlate themselves with the
Divine. Mental liberation or liberation from ignorance helps our mind to
realize the existence of Gnostic consciousness within us. Due to ignorance or
Avidya, we can mistaken our identity and detach us from the Divine. But when
with self-knowledge our Avidya or ignorance diminishes then we will truly
identify ourselves as none other than the manifestation of the Supreme. Vital
liberation or liberation from desire is also important in nature. It helps us
to identify the divine will hidden within, devoid of the narrow self-centred
egoistic human desire. Whenever we are guided by our desires we cannot even
reach nearer to the Divine. But the discovery of the divine will deeply
inherent within has been the ultimate goal to be achieved by vital liberation.
Finally, the physical liberation or liberation from materialistic achievements
helps us to gain freedom from our sub-conscious or semi-conscious levels of
impulsions. Our impulses limited us within the physical realm. When we free
ourselves from the blind impulses then we will be touched by the supramental
consciousness hidden within us by the help of Chaitya Purusha or the innermost
being according to Sri Aurobindo.
From here the
road towards Life Divine will open by discovering the true nature of Psychic
being or Chaitya Purusha. The way towards this discovery is not at all an easy
road to reach. By the help of self- knowledge (Ătma - jňāna/tattva - jňāna) we
can discover the existence of inner divinity within us. And for discovering
this inner divinity first of all we have to discover the inmost being or
Psychic Being (considered as Chaitya Purusha by Sri Aurobindo). And this discovery
of psychic being leads us to go through Sri Aurobindo‟s notion of psychic education
However the
discovery of this psychic being is not so easy in nature. An individual, always
surrounded by his narrow egoistic ventures, never want to indulged into the
search for his inner being deep inherent within. It is a road very difficult
for an individual in this materialistic world I suppose.
But our
search for Life Divine certainly not ends with the discovery of the psychic
being or Chaitya Purusha. Psychic education just opens the door to reach there.
It is better to be known as the gateway towards another education, namely
spiritual education which certainly serves our purpose ultimately. By the help
of psychic education we can identify our inmost being or psychic being, but
with the help of spiritual education we have to comprehend the ultimate truth
of our life i.e. men are nothing else but the manifestation of the Brahman. The
discovery of our psychic being or Chaitya Purusha lays the gateway of such self-discovery.
So psychic education serves as the basis of the spiritual education
Actually,
according to Sri Aurobindo, spiritual education truly shows us the path of
human beings arising to the ultimate level of the Superman. And by realizing
his identity as none the less but God himself when man considers his inner
possibility as superman then this serve our dream of coming down the super mind
upon the earthen level truly possible and the result is Life Divine for all.
Hence spiritual education truly stands for the gateway of Life Divine.
CONCLUSION
Note
8; But again to tell that the road is not so smooth to reach there.
In my view, men can easily serve the goals of physical education, vital
education and even of mental education.
But the journey towards Life Divine via the road of psychic education and
spiritual education (this journey is somewhat inward in nature) is very
difficult to cope with. However it is not impossible to reach the goal
according to Sri Aurobindo but till now we don’t have enough example of superman
who can bring down the super mind on the earthen level just like Bhagirath call
upon Ganga
Prof. Debashri Banerjee National Education
Theory of Sri Aurobindo Page 6 International Journal of
Research in Humanities and Social Studies V2 ● I12 ● December 2015
REFERENCE
[1] On Women : Compiled from the writings of Sri
Aurobindo and The Mother , Sri AurobindoSociety, Pondicherry, 2004.
[2] Pavitra (P. B. Saint-Hilaire), Education and The Aim of Human Life, Sri
Aurobindo InternationalCentre of Education, Pondicherry, 2002.
[3] Sharma, Ram Nath, Text Book of Educational
Philosophy, Kanishka Publishers Distributors, New Delhi, 2000.
[4] Sri Aurobindo and The Mother On Education, Sri
Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry, 2004.
[5] Sri Aurobindo and The Mother On Physical Education,
Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry, 2002.
Prof. Debashri Banerjee National Education
Theory of Sri Aurobindo
International
Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V2 ● I12 ● December 2015
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